Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) is a powerful cryptographic tool that can verify the correctness of computations while protecting the privacy of input data. As a crucial part of this infrastructure, Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) play a vital role in simplifying the development and verification process of ZKP circuits. They serve as important bridges between abstract concepts and the precise circuit representations required by proof systems.

One of the key challenges faced by proof systems is translating abstract high-level concepts into actual circuits. However, the emergence of DSLs has addressed this challenge by facilitating the structured expression of these abstract concepts in a more concrete and implementable manner.

Over the past decade, we have witnessed significant growth in both the quantity and diversity of DSLs in this field. This active development is evident in the creation of various circuit languages, including Noir, Leo, and Zinc. Whether you need general options like Circom or customized solutions for specific platforms like Cairo, you can choose from a variety of languages and frameworks to write ZKP circuits.

In this article, we will explore the primary ZK programming languages that developers are actively utilizing and analyze the best features of each language.

TLDR;

Cairo By StarkWare

Cairo is the core language for supporting STARK proofs and has played a crucial role in the success of StarkNet and StarkEx, driving scalability for applications on the Ethereum mainnet. Notably, Cairo has been instrumental in supporting various applications, including dYdX, Sorare, and Immutable X. The name "Cairo" is derived from "CPU Algebraic Intermediate Representation." In the field of zero-knowledge proofs, it serves a role similar to assembly language, enabling developers familiar with low-level programming languages such as C, C++, or Solidity to onboard more easily.

Inspired by Rust, Cairo empowers developers to create Starknet smart contracts, with a focus on security and user-friendly development. Cairo boasts powerful syntax, simplifying the creation of ZK circuits and enabling users to perform various tasks within Cairo programs. Additionally, Cairo's notable advantage lies in its scalability, allowing for the flexible introduction of new features and functionalities.

In ZK systems, efficiency and scalability are crucial factors, and Cairo meets these requirements by emphasizing both aspects. The language integrates optimization strategies, including constraint reduction and loop elimination, to alleviate the computational burden typically associated with ZK circuits. Cairo's optimized circuit design results in faster proof generation and verification, making it an ideal choice for applications requiring high throughput and minimal latency.

The remarkable expansion of Cairo's development is evident in the significant increase in full-time developers over the past two years. This surge highlights Cairo's adaptability, as its utility extends beyond blockchain and holds significance in any context requiring computation verification. Therefore, we can anticipate further significant adoption of Cairo by developers.

On September 28, 2023, Starknet released a significant upgrade to its programming language, Cairo v2.3.0. This version marks a major advancement in modular contracts, enhancing the potential of smart contracts by introducing new features, storage options, and event management. The integration of these components provides a flexible way to extend contract functionality, allowing third-party modules to enhance contract capabilities.

Zinc by ZkSync

Zinc is a programming language designed specifically for creating smart contracts and SNARK circuits on the zkSync platform. It adopts Rust syntax, incorporates elements of Solidity, and offers unique functionalities.

Zinc's uniqueness lies in its user-friendliness. You can write secure code without delving deep into the complexities of Rank-1 Constraint Systems (R1CS). Zinc emphasizes immutability, inherently possessing functional characteristics. This prioritization of immutable data and function evaluation reduces side effects, facilitating the writing of cleaner, less error-prone smart contract code.

Furthermore, Zinc includes secure mathematical operations to prevent potential overflows, ensuring the safety of all operations. Despite some limitations, such as the absence of infinite loops and recursion, Zinc simplifies the debugging process through console log tracking. These traces streamline the process of tracking and resolving transactions on test networks or the main network, enhancing the debugging experience.

Noir By Aztec

Noir is an open-source DSL developed by Aztec, based on Rust, aimed at simplifying the creation of ZK circuits and ZK programs without requiring in-depth knowledge of cryptography. It is considered one of the most beginner-friendly languages, suitable for writing ZK applications compatible with any proof system. Noir prioritizes security, conciseness, and performance. It provides advanced syntax similar to Rust, abstracting cryptographic security and simplifying the use of cryptographic primitives while maintaining high performance.

Noir has a significant advantage in expanding the range of applications that can leverage the privacy-preserving capabilities provided by ZKP, thereby enhancing privacy and verification efficiency. Noir compiles into an intermediate representation called Abstract Circuit Intermediate Representation (Acer), which can then be further compiled into R1CS. Separating the backend proof system from the language itself allows Noir to support various proof systems, including Aztec Brettenberg, Turbo Plonk, and potential future integrations such as Groth16 and Halo2.

The language offers a standard library, including efficient functionalities such as SHA-256 (a cryptographic hash function that generates fixed-size outputs) and Pedersen-Merkle checks (an encryption verification technique using Pedersen commitments and Merkle trees to ensure data integrity and consistency). Noir's design resembles Rust, incorporating features familiar to application developers, such as functions, submodules, user-defined types (structs), conditional statements, loops, and global constants. Additionally, ongoing efforts are being made to develop generics and first-class functions, further enhancing Noir's expressive capabilities.

It is important to note that Noir is still undergoing continuous improvement and may have some limitations and potential errors. However, the development team is committed to continuously improving and optimizing the language.

o1js by 0(1) Labs

o1js, formerly known as SnarkyJS, is a TypeScript library developed by 0(1)Labs for creating smart contracts using the SNARK programming language. It leverages established technologies such as Node.js and browser compatibility to ensure developers can easily access and use it conveniently.

o1js seamlessly integrates with JavaScript and TypeScript libraries and tools, providing developers with a powerful ecosystem and extensive community support. This integration simplifies the development process and reduces the learning curve associated with adopting a new development environment. Additionally, it fully supports Visual Studio Code (VS Code), a widely used code editor that allows developers to take full advantage of features such as code completion, syntax highlighting, and debugging, enhancing the development experience.

Essentially, o1js is a versatile ZK framework that provides essential tools for creating zk proofs. It supports the creation of diverse ZK programs, covering various built-in provable operations, including basic arithmetic, hashing, signatures, boolean operations, comparisons, and more. With the o1js framework, you can build zkApps on the Mina Protocol, where these smart contracts execute on the client side with private inputs.

It is worth noting that in early September 2023, the 0(1)Labs team announced the transition from SnarkyJS to o1js, emphasizing their commitment to improving performance. Particularly noteworthy is their achievement of a 3-4 times reduction in library loading time, referring to the time required to import o1js, a process that may block the main thread. For web applications, loading time is crucial for JavaScript execution timing and overall page rendering. Additionally, the team updated the Mina zkApp CLI, enhancing the user interface building experience, and announced further improvements to the Archive Node API to enhance its reliability and clarity.

Leo by Aleo

The Aleo blockchain stands out in the smart contract space, emphasizing privacy protection. At its core is the Leo programming language, a statically typed language inspired by Rust. Leo is designed for developing private applications, providing support for creators who aim to build secure and confidential decentralized ecosystems. What truly sets Leo apart is its pioneering role in introducing a comprehensive toolkit for general zero-knowledge applications. This toolkit includes a testing framework, package registry, import resolver, remote compiler, and theorem prover.

The concept of Leo comes from a development team led by Howard Wu, envisioning a capability for developers to build decentralized applications prioritizing privacy and security. Drawing from Rust principles and incorporating some JavaScript-like elements, Leo aims to facilitate familiarity and convenience in the development process. Furthermore, Leo aims to accelerate development and simplify the process by providing an integrated testing platform, package registry, and import resolver. This integration allows developers to focus on the core logic of their applications without being burdened by infrastructure issues.

A notable feature of Leo is its compiler, which transforms programs into a low-level R1CS proof format. The uniqueness of the Leo compiler lies in its rigorous formal verification process. This verification is crucial, as vulnerabilities may arise at multiple stages, from initial programming to auditing and compilation. By conducting rigorous mathematical checks to ensure alignment with the programmer's intent, Leo aims to reduce the risk of unnoticed errors or potential vulnerabilities, especially in private programs on L2 contexts, ZK-rollups, or the Leo platform.

Circom by iden3

Circom, a DSL meticulously designed for ZK circuit development, is the result of collaboration between Jordi Baylina and the iden3 team. The Circom compiler is written in Rust and is primarily responsible for compiling circuits written in the Circom language. It is worth noting that Circom has become the preferred choice for outstanding real-world ZK applications, such as Dark Forest and Tornado Cash. Its popularity is attributed to its excellent performance, including fast browser proof times achieved through optimized WASM proofs, efficient server-side proofs through rapidsnark, and efficient on-chain verification.

However, it is important to recognize that Circom's functionality is primarily focused on ZK circuit development, which may limit its applicability in handling more extensive computational tasks. Developers seeking more features to meet broader development needs may find Circom's capabilities somewhat restrictive. In such cases, developers may need to combine other programming languages or frameworks to meet broader development requirements.

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Image source: Circom
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Circom's compatibility primarily focuses on widely used ZKP systems such as snarkjs and libsnark. While this compatibility ensures seamless integration with these widely used systems, it also means that Circom circuits inherit specific functionalities and limitations related to these dependencies. Developers who prefer or need alternative ZKP systems may face compatibility challenges or need to invest additional effort to adapt and integrate Circom-generated circuits into their preferred systems.

Lurk by Lurk Lab

Lurk is a statically scoped Lisp dialect influenced by Scheme and Common Lisp, with a unique feature: it allows for directly proving the correctness of program execution using zk-SNARKs, achieving compact and efficient verification.

Main uses of Lurk include:

• Verifiable Computation: Lurk allows you to prove the correctness of its expressions under zero-knowledge conditions, enhancing trust in the computation results.

• Zero-Knowledge: Users can prove knowledge without revealing specific information other than public inputs, thus protecting privacy.

• Content-Addressed Data: Each Lurk program comes with a unique Content Identifier (CID), making it compatible with IPFS and IPLD.

• Turing Completeness: Lurk supports creating and proving arbitrary computational statements.

• Higher-Order Functions: Lurk functions can accept and return functions, enabling expressive functional programming.

• Computation with Private Data: Lurk enables processing private data while ensuring provable correct outputs without leaking privacy.

When building general circuits, Lurk fully utilizes the Lisp "cons" memory allocator. This allocator merges expressions and generates references through hashing. The key is to prove that two expressions do indeed hash to the same reference. This verification allows Lurk to perform computations within snark circuits.

Lurk offers rich functionality, including support for infinite recursion, loops, conditional control flow, and multiple backend proof systems such as Groth16, SnarkPack+, and Nova. This versatility opens doors for various applications, including verifiable computation, private data processing, and executing Turing complete programs within snark circuits.

Summary

With the increasing diversity of ZK applications, the future of DSL in the ZK field is promising. The key to the success of DSL lies in building a vibrant community and rich libraries to enrich the developer experience. DSLs that prioritize compatibility with existing libraries can leverage the knowledge and resources of a broader developer community. This approach helps in smoother integration, accelerates development, and provides greater flexibility in implementing ZK applications. This collaborative effort is crucial for nurturing a healthier ecosystem around DSLs, providing tangible benefits to developers, and further driving the adoption and effectiveness of ZK technology.

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