Author: @ChromiteMerge
Ethereum is set to undergo a hard fork upgrade named "Fusaka" on December 3, 2025. This upgrade includes 12 Ethereum Improvement Proposals (EIPs), which function like 12 precise components that will collectively enhance Ethereum's scalability, security, and operational efficiency. Below, the author categorizes these 12 EIPs and explains in simple terms what problems they address and why they are crucial for Ethereum's future.
Scalability! Making Ethereum Faster and More Capable
This is the core theme of the Fusaka upgrade. To support the global digital economy, Ethereum must address issues of transaction congestion and high fees. The following EIPs are aimed at achieving this goal, particularly focusing on reducing costs and increasing efficiency for Layer 2 scalability.
EIP-7594: PeerDAS - Data Availability Sampling
Pain Point: Since the Dencun upgrade introduced data "Blobs" for affordable data storage on Layer 2, a core issue has arisen: how to ensure the vast amounts of data are genuinely available? Currently, the approach requires each validating node to download and verify all blob data carried by a block. When a block carries a maximum of 9 Blobs, this method is still feasible. However, if the number of Blobs increases in the future (for example, to 128), downloading and verifying all blobs will incur high costs, raising the participation threshold for validating nodes and threatening the network's decentralization.
Solution: PeerDAS (Peer Data Availability Sampling) transforms the traditional "full check" into a "sampling check." In simple terms:
The network slices the complete blob data.
Each validator does not need to download all blobs; they only need to randomly download and check a few data fragments.
Then, by cross-checking and exchanging verification results, they can collectively confirm the integrity and availability of the entire blob data set.
This is like a large puzzle game where everyone has only a few pieces, but as long as they verify the key connections with each other, they can confirm that the entire puzzle is intact. It is worth noting that PeerDAS is not a brand new invention; the core DAS concept has been successfully implemented in third-party DA projects like Celestia. The implementation of PeerDAS is more like filling a critical "technical debt" in Ethereum's long-term scalability blueprint.
Significance: PeerDAS significantly reduces the storage burden on validators, clearing potential obstacles that could weaken decentralization for large-scale data expansion in Ethereum. In the future, each block is expected to accommodate hundreds of Blobs, supporting the Teragas vision claiming up to 10 million TPS, while ordinary users can easily run validators, maintaining the network's decentralization.
EIP-7892: BPO Hard Fork - Lightweight Parameter Upgrade
Pain Point: The market demand for Layer 2 data capacity changes rapidly. If every adjustment to the maximum number of Blobs requires waiting for a large upgrade like Fusaka, it would be too slow to keep pace with ecological development.
Solution: This EIP defines a special "Blob Parameter Only Hardfork" (BPO) mechanism. This upgrade is very lightweight; it only modifies a few parameters related to Blobs (such as the target number of Blobs per block) and does not involve complex code changes. Node operators do not even need to upgrade client software; they just need to accept the new parameters at the specified time, as simple as updating a configuration file online.
Significance: The BPO mechanism gives Ethereum the ability to quickly and safely adjust network capacity. For example, after this Fusaka upgrade, the community plans to execute two consecutive BPO upgrades in a short time, gradually doubling the Blob capacity. This allows Ethereum to scale blob space on demand, flexibly, and progressively, enabling smoother increases in L2 costs and throughput, with more controllable risks.
EIP-7918: Stabilizing Blob Fee Market
Pain Point: The previous adjustment mechanism for Blob fees was too "market-driven," leading to some unexpected issues. First, when market demand for Blobs is low, fees drop to near zero, which does not effectively stimulate new demand and instead creates an abnormal "historical low price." Conversely, when demand is high, blob fees soar, creating another extreme high price. This drastic price "involution" makes fee planning for Layer 2 projects difficult.
Solution: The core idea of EIP-7918 is to stop allowing Blob fees to fluctuate without limits and instead set a reasonable price range, i.e., a flexible "minimum consumption." The implementation method is to link the upper and lower limits of blob fees with the execution fees of Layer 2 on Layer 1. Whether updating the state root or verifying a ZK proof, these execution fees are relatively stable and not significantly related to the transaction volume within L2 blocks. Therefore, linking the upper and lower limits of blob fees to this stable "anchor" can prevent their prices from wildly fluctuating.
Significance: The direct benefit of this improvement is to prevent the "involution" of the Blob fee market, making the operating cost model of Layer 2 projects more predictable. This way, Layer 2 can set more stable and reasonable transaction fees for end users, avoiding the "free today, exorbitant tomorrow" rollercoaster experience.
EIP-7935: Enhancing Mainnet Transaction Capacity
Pain Point: The total number of transactions that each Ethereum block can accommodate is determined by the "block gas limit" (currently about 30 million) and has not been adjusted for many years. To enhance the overall network throughput, the most direct way is to increase this limit, but it must ensure not to raise the hardware threshold for validating nodes or weaken decentralization.
Solution: This proposal suggests raising the default gas limit for blocks to a new level (specific value to be determined, possibly 45 million or higher). This is not a mandatory lock but rather a new recommended default value, guiding consensus layer validators to gradually accept a higher gas limit.
Significance: This means that each Layer 1 block can package more transactions, directly increasing the TPS of the Ethereum mainnet, alleviating network congestion and soaring gas fees. Of course, this also places higher demands on the hardware of validators, so the community will proceed cautiously with testing and advancement.
Security and Stability! Building a Strong Defense for the Network
While expanding capacity, it is essential to ensure the security and stability of the network. The Ethereum Foundation launched the “Trillion Dollar Security Plan (1TS)” in May 2025, aiming to establish an Ethereum network capable of securely supporting assets at the trillion-dollar level. Several EIPs in Fusaka are advancements of the 1TS plan, akin to installing more reliable "brakes" and "guardrails" on the fast-moving Ethereum.
EIP-7934: Setting a Physical Block Size Limit
Pain Point: Ethereum's "block gas limit" only concerns the total computational amount of all transactions within a block but does not specify the physical size of the block. This creates a vulnerability: attackers can carefully construct a large number of "low-cost, high-volume" transactions (for example, transferring 0 ETH to many addresses, which has a very low computational cost but a large data volume), thus packaging a block that does not exceed the computational limit but has an abnormally large physical size. Such "data bomb" blocks would propagate very slowly through the network, potentially causing some nodes to miss data and fall behind, posing a serious DoS (Denial of Service) attack risk.
Solution: Set a hard limit of 10MB for the size of each block. Any block exceeding this size will be rejected by the network.
Significance: This is akin to setting a maximum size for trucks on the highway to prevent "oversized" vehicles from affecting traffic. It ensures that blocks can propagate quickly through the network, reducing delays and enhancing the network's stability and resistance to attacks.
EIP-7825: Setting a Gas Limit for Individual Transactions
Pain Point: Currently, while blocks have a total gas limit, individual transactions do not. Theoretically, someone could construct a transaction that consumes nearly all the resources of a block, pushing out all other transactions, which is both unfair and poses security risks.
Solution: Set a hard limit of 16.77 million gas for each transaction. Complex operations exceeding this scale must be split into multiple transactions before submission.
Significance: This improves the fairness and predictability of the network, ensuring that no single transaction can "dominate" the block. Ordinary user transactions will not be excessively delayed due to a "super large order."
EIP-7823 & EIP-7883: Strengthening ModExp Precompilation Security
Pain Point: ModExp is a function used in Ethereum for handling large number modular exponentiation, commonly found in some cryptographic applications. However, it has two risks: first, there is no limit on the length of input numbers, which could be exploited by maliciously constructed oversized inputs; second, its gas fee standard is relatively low, allowing attackers to call it in large quantities at a low cost, consuming node resources.
Solution:
EIP-7823: Set an input length limit of 8192 bits for ModExp, which is more than sufficient for practical application needs.
EIP-7883: Increase the gas fees for ModExp, especially for larger inputs, ensuring that the computational costs align with resource consumption.
Significance: These two improvements work together to eliminate a potential attack vector. They are like setting a "maximum workload" for a computing service while adjusting the "tiered pricing" to prevent abuse, thereby enhancing the overall robustness of the network.
Functional Upgrades! Providing Developers with More Powerful Tools
In addition to scalability and security, Fusaka also brings some practical new tools and features for developers, making it more efficient and powerful to build applications on Ethereum.
EIP-7951: Compatibility with Mainstream Hardware Signatures
Pain Point: The security chips built into devices we commonly use, such as smartphones (like the iPhone), bank USB security tokens, and hardware security modules, generally utilize a cryptographic standard called secp256r1 (also known as P-256). In contrast, Ethereum defaults to using another standard, secp256k1, which prevents these mainstream devices from directly interacting securely with Ethereum, limiting the widespread adoption of Web3.
Solution: Introduce a new precompiled contract that allows Ethereum to natively support and verify signatures from the secp256r1 curve.
Significance: This is a milestone improvement. It opens the door for Ethereum to connect with billions of hardware devices worldwide. In the future, you can directly use the security chip in your smartphone to sign Ethereum transactions, without the need for additional wallet applications or complex conversions, resulting in a smoother experience and higher security. This significantly lowers the barrier for the traditional world to access Ethereum, providing a major boost for the integration of Web2 and Web3.
EIP-7939: New CLZ Efficient Calculation Instruction
Pain Point: In smart contracts and cryptographic applications, it is often necessary to calculate how many consecutive zero bits are at the beginning of a 256-bit number (for example, in hashing algorithms, compression algorithms, zero-knowledge proofs, etc.). Currently, there is no direct Opcode in the Ethereum EVM to support this operation, forcing developers to implement it using complex Solidity code, which is costly and inefficient.
Solution: Introduce a new Opcode in the EVM called “CLZ” (Count Leading Zeros) that completes the calculation in one step.
Significance: This provides developers with a time-saving and labor-saving professional tool. It can significantly reduce the Gas cost of related calculations, allowing applications that rely on complex mathematical computations (especially ZK Rollups) to operate more cheaply and efficiently.
Network Optimization! Invisible Improvements for a Healthier Ecosystem
The last two EIPs may not be strongly perceived by users, but they are crucial for the long-term healthy operation and coordination efficiency of the network.
EIP-7642: Reducing the Synchronization Burden for New Nodes
Pain Point: Over time, Ethereum has accumulated a massive amount of historical data. A new node joining the network must download and synchronize all this data, which is time-consuming and labor-intensive, raising the entry barrier. Additionally, since Ethereum transitioned to PoS consensus after The Merge, some unnecessary fields have remained in the old transaction receipt information, causing redundancy.
Solution: Introduce a "data expiration" strategy that allows new nodes to skip certain outdated data during synchronization; at the same time, simplify the format of transaction receipts by removing unnecessary redundant fields. This way, new nodes can save a lot of useless data when synchronizing from the genesis block.
Significance: This improvement "slims down" node operation, potentially reducing about 530GB of data transfer for each full node synchronization! A lower barrier means more people can run nodes, enhancing the decentralization and robustness of the network.
EIP-7917: Deterministic Block Order and Pre-confirmation
Pain Point: To understand the importance of this EIP, we first need to discuss a core pain point of current Layer 2 Rollups: centralized sequencers. Currently, most Rollups rely on a single entity to receive and order user L2 transactions, granting it the power to censor transactions and extract MEV, which contradicts the spirit of decentralization. To address this issue, the community proposed the concept of Based Rollup—abandoning L2's own sequencer and directly utilizing Ethereum L1's block Proposer to order L2 transactions, thereby inheriting L1's decentralization and neutrality.
However, this solution has a fatal flaw: slowness. Layer 2 must wait for L1 blocks to be on-chain before executing transactions, resulting in significant delays and poor user experience. The only solution is to introduce a "pre-confirmation" mechanism, where the L2 Gateway can obtain commitments in advance from future L1 proposers: "I guarantee that I will package the transactions you submit on-chain, or I will compensate you," allowing Layer 2 to update its state (such as account balances) in advance to reduce user waiting time. But under the current random proposer selection mechanism, the gateway has no idea who to "negotiate" with, making reliable pre-confirmation impossible.
Solution: EIP-7917 modifies the consensus protocol so that the order of proposers for a future period can be calculated deterministically and made public. It transforms "on-the-spot drawing lots" into a publicly verifiable, pre-arranged "block schedule."
Significance: This improvement is a key cornerstone for realizing next-generation decentralized solutions like Based Rollup. With this "schedule," L2 gateways can identify the proposer for a future block in advance and negotiate directly with them to obtain a reliable pre-confirmation guaranteed by Slash penalties. This allows Based Rollup to enjoy L1-level decentralization and security while providing users with an instant transaction experience close to that of a centralized sequencer. It can be said that EIP-7917 opens a crucial door for the Ethereum ecosystem to achieve deeper levels of "decentralized" scaling.
Why is the Fusaka Upgrade Timely?
The Fusaka upgrade is not only a technical iteration but also an important strategic upgrade for Ethereum against the backdrop of traditional finance's large-scale on-chain integration through RWA and stablecoins. Currently, Ethereum serves as the main battlefield, hosting over 56% of the total stablecoin supply in the network, becoming the core settlement layer of the global digital dollar economy. The goal of Fusaka is to prepare for the influx of "Wall Street" level assets and transaction volumes.
- Custom Layer 2 Chains for Institutional Use, Providing Unlimited Scaling "Fuel"
With the entry of traditional financial institutions, we will see more and more Layer 2 "dedicated chains" tailored for specific needs (such as KYC compliance). These dedicated chains require the Ethereum mainnet to provide massive, affordable, and secure data storage space (i.e., Data Availability).
The proposals in Fusaka, such as EIP-7594, EIP-7892, and EIP-7918, are designed to meet this demand. Their core goal is singular: to significantly reduce the cost of data publishing for Layer 2 and provide flexible scaling on demand.
In fact, after the Pectra upgrade, Blob fees have already been very low; why continue to lower them? Because Fusaka adopts a strategy of "sacrificing short-term fee income for larger-scale economic activity," aiming to grow the entire network's GDP, allowing more transactions to convert into more staking and ETH burn, thereby supporting the overall value of the network.
- Moving Towards "Trillion Dollar Security," Building an Unbreakable Financial Infrastructure
For financial institutions managing trillions in assets, security is an inviolable bottom line. The Ethereum community has also proposed the grand goal of "trillion-dollar security." The proposals in Fusaka, including EIP-7934, EIP-7825, EIP-7823, and EIP-7883, are aimed at reinforcing the walls and eliminating potential security risks, moving towards this goal.
In summary, the main line of the Fusaka upgrade is clear and firm: scalability and security. Driven by favorable regulations and market enthusiasm, the Fusaka upgrade is indeed timely. It will help Ethereum seize the policy windfall, solidify its dominant position in the stablecoin and asset on-chain space, and further transform Ethereum from a "speculative asset" into a mainstream financial infrastructure.
Conclusion: Deep Changes Beneath the Surface
As an important upgrade at the end of 2025, Fusaka quietly injects powerful internal momentum into Ethereum without overwhelming market hype. The 12 improvements it encompasses directly address the three major pain points of scalability, security, and efficiency. What it does is broaden the "value highway" of Ethereum, enhancing its capacity and reliability, preparing for the future influx of users, assets, and applications.
For ordinary users, these changes may seem "quiet," but their impact will be profound. A stronger, more efficient, and more secure Ethereum will have the capability to realize grand visions that were once only imaginable—whether it be a global instant settlement network or "on-chain Wall Street." Fusaka is a solid step towards this future.
This article is based on public information analysis and does not constitute investment advice. Cryptocurrency investment carries significant risks; please make cautious decisions and DYOR.
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