Author: Zhang Feng

1. From "Star-Ground Link" to "Global Networking," Quantum Networks Reach a Critical Milestone

As global tech giants compete to invest in quantum computing, attempting to crack the computational power limits of classical computers, a more grand and fundamental challenge is emerging: how to securely and efficiently connect these dispersed quantum computing nodes, quantum sensors, and even future quantum users into a cohesive whole? The ultimate goal of quantum information science is to construct an efficient and secure global quantum network. However, optical photons transmitted in optical fibers quickly attenuate due to loss, creating a 'moat' on the informational highway, significantly restricting the distance and scale of quantum communication.

Recently, a research team from the University of Science and Technology of China has constructed the basic module of a scalable quantum relay for the first time internationally and achieved device-independent quantum key distribution over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This series of breakthroughs is widely regarded as a milestone on the path to practical quantum networks. This marks the transition in building the quantum internet from 'point-to-point' demonstrations relying on special channels (such as the "Micius" satellite's star-ground link) to a scalable 'networked' new phase based on ground optical fibers. This technological leap not only concerns communication security but will also profoundly impact the collaboration of AI agents, the foundational trust of Web3, digital risk governance models, and the evolution of the global open-source ecosystem.

2. Building Layered Quantum Services to Empower the Next Generation of Digital Infrastructure

The maturity of quantum relay technology will give rise to a completely new, layered quantum network business ecosystem. Its core business model is not to replace classical internet but to serve as a key enhancement layer, providing services unattainable by classical networks.

The primary and most commercially viable layer is quantum secure communication services. Long-distance, device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) achieved through scalable quantum relays can provide theoretically absolutely secure key sharing. This offers an ultimate solution for the construction of dedicated networks for critical infrastructures like finance, government, and energy, as well as secure custody of decentralized identities and assets in Web3.

Next is distributed quantum computing services. By connecting medium-scale quantum processors through quantum relays, a virtual "super large-scale quantum computer" can be constructed, breaking through the physical qubit limits of single chips to solve more complex optimization and simulation problems. This will provide an unprecedented computing resource pool for training AI large models, discovering new materials, and more.

The third layer is quantum sensing network services. By connecting widely distributed quantum sensors (such as atomic clocks and magnetometers), a highly precise space-time reference network can be built, applicable to autonomous driving, geological exploration, and even fundamental scientific research. These three layers together compose the core value chain of the future quantum internet.

3. Exploring Diverse Value Monetization Paths from Government Procurement to Platform Subscriptions

As a capital-intensive and high-tech threshold infrastructure, the profit model of quantum networks will display a phased evolution.

In the initial stage (demonstration application period), profits will mainly rely on special government and large enterprise procurement. For example, providing quantum encryption upgrade solutions for national core communication trunk lines, military command networks, and national-level scientific research networks. The breakthrough of device-independent quantum key distribution at the hundred-kilometer level clears critical technical obstacles for the construction of such high-security dedicated networks.

In the mid-term (ecosystem construction period), as the number of network nodes and users increases, platform-based subscription models will become mainstream. Cloud service providers (such as AWS, Azure, and Alibaba Cloud) may launch subscription packages for "Quantum Security as a Service" (QSaaS) or "Quantum Computing as a Service" (QCaaS), allowing enterprises to purchase quantum key distribution duration or distributed quantum computing resources as needed. At the same time, customized solutions targeting vertical industries such as finance and healthcare will bring high profits.

In the long term (popularization period), quantum network capabilities may be integrated as a foundational function into consumer-grade devices and applications, generating profits through licensing fees and traffic sharing. For example, future smartphones or IoT devices may include miniature quantum communication modules to provide underlying support for personal data encryption and digital asset transactions, resulting in continuous revenue from related chips and protocol licenses. The open-source ecosystem will play a key role in the mid-to-long term by attracting numerous developers to build applications by opening certain protocols and interface standards, thus expanding network effects and platform value.

4. Exponential Improvement in Efficiency and Unconditional Security, Establishing Irreplaceability

Quantum relay technology is considered a revolutionary breakthrough due to its two core advantages, which classical relay technologies cannot achieve. The combination of these two advantages endows quantum networks with irreplaceable strategic value in ultra-secure communication and distributed quantum information processing.

The first is an exponential increase in transmission efficiency. According to research, using quantum relay schemes for entanglement distribution over 1,000 kilometers of fiber, the efficiency is an astonishing 100 billion billion times higher compared to direct transmission of photons in fiber. This magnitude of improvement makes it physically possible to build quantum networks spanning continents or even globally.

The second is the provision of "device-independent" unconditional security. The breakthrough of hundred-kilometer device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) achieved in this process does not rely on complete trust in the physical devices themselves. Even if there are unknown vulnerabilities in the devices or they are maliciously manipulated, as long as the laws of quantum mechanics are followed, the confidentiality of the communication can still be mathematically guaranteed. This completely solves the security risks in traditional quantum key distribution (QKD) caused by imperfections in devices, laying the foundation for constructing truly trustworthy global secure networks.

5. Long-term Coexistence and Complementarity with Classical Encryption and Traditional QKD

When discussing the "competitors" of quantum networks, it is important to clarify that they do not seek to completely replace existing technologies but rather to form complementary and surpassing relationships in specific scenarios.

Regarding post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This is an encryption algorithm framed within classical computing, designed to resist future quantum computer attacks. Its advantage lies in being easily deployable through software upgrades on existing internet infrastructure, at a low cost. Quantum key distribution (QKD) and its relay networks offer long-term security based on physical principles, but require dedicated hardware and channels. The relationship between the two is likely to be a "dual-track" coexistence where PQC is used for general encryption of massive amounts of data, and QKD is used to protect the highest-level keys and long-term secrets.

Regarding traditional trusted relay QKD. This is a currently commercially used QKD networking method, which extends distance by performing "measure-reshuffle" of keys at relay nodes. However, its security relies on absolute trust in the physical security of each relay node, posing a single point of failure risk. In contrast, quantum relays based on quantum entanglement swapping do not measure key information directly during the relay process, providing higher security and greater scalability. With the maturation and cost reduction of quantum relay technology, it is expected to gradually replace trusted relay solutions on long-distance trunk lines.

Regarding satellite quantum communication: such as China's "Micius," its advantage lies in ultra-long distances (star-ground can reach the kilometer level) and flexible networking, suitable for covering remote areas or as a backbone network supplement. However, its communication window is restricted by weather and orbital cycles, limiting its continuity and bandwidth. Ground fiber optic quantum relay networks can provide stable, high-bandwidth, all-weather urban or intercontinental links. In the future, a "star-ground integrated" network is more likely to emerge.

6. The Long Journey from Laboratory Modules to Engineered Networks

Although the principled breakthroughs are exciting, transforming the basic modules of scalable quantum relays into a robust global quantum internet still faces a series of severe engineering and non-technical challenges.

On the technical side, the primary challenges are system complexity and stability. Current experiments are conducted in precisely controlled laboratory environments under extremely low temperatures and high vacuum. Integrating atomic nodes, optical interfaces, control electronics, etc., into compact, low-power engineering devices that can stably operate 24/7 in standard data center environments is a significant challenge.

Secondly, there is a lack of network protocols and standards. The classical internet has the TCP/IP protocol stack, while the quantum internet requires a completely new protocol stack to manage the generation, storage, exchange, routing, and consumption of entangled resources, and to achieve synergy with classical networks. This requires broad cooperation among global academia, industry, and research communities.

Cost issues are also prominent. Quantum relay nodes based on cold atoms and ion traps are currently expensive, making large-scale deployment unaffordable.

On the non-technical side, there is a huge talent gap. It is rare to find interdisciplinary talents with knowledge of quantum physics, optical engineering, network technology, and cryptography.

Additionally, societal and market understanding and acceptance will also take time to cultivate; users need to comprehend the differences between quantum security and traditional security and their true value.

7. Technological Sovereignty, Export Control, and Global Standard Competition

Due to their strategic significance, quantum relay and quantum network technologies will inevitably be situated in a complex global compliance and geopolitical environment, with major risks reflected in three aspects.

First is the risk of technology export control. Quantum technology has been classified as a sensitive key technology by major countries around the world and is subject to strict export controls. For example, core components used for quantum relays such as precision lasers, cryogenic equipment, and special optical fibers will face scrutiny and restrictions in international trade. Related enterprises' overseas research and development cooperation, technology transfer, and academic exchanges may all be affected.

Second is the risk of data sovereignty and cross-border flow compliance. Quantum networks, particularly those providing absolutely secure communication, will carry the most sensitive data. How various countries' laws and regulations on data localization storage and cross-border data transmission (such as the EU's GDPR and China's "Data Security Law") will apply to quantum channels is a new area to clarify. Utilizing transnational quantum links for communication may simultaneously trigger compliance requirements from multiple jurisdictions.

Third is the risk associated with standard setting and intellectual property. The global quantum internet requires unified technical standards (such as quantum network protocols and interface specifications). The competition for standard-setting rights is essentially a struggle for future industrial dominance. Currently, organizations like the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), IEEE, and ISO have begun related discussions. Falling behind in the standard race may lead to locked-in technological paths and patents subject to others, thereby positioning companies and technology teams in the downstream of the value chain in the future "quantum ecosystem." Companies and technology teams must proactively lay out patents and actively participate in international standard setting.

8. A Decade Ahead, Integrating with AI and Web3 to Define the Digital Future

Looking ahead to the next decade, breakthroughs in quantum relay technology will open a new era of networking, akin to the TCP/IP protocol of the past, and deeply couple with other cutting-edge technologies.

In the short term, we will see the completion of demonstration projects for metropolitan and intercity quantum secure communication networks based on quantum relays, initially serving national governance, finance, and scientific research dedicated networks. Device-independent QKD technology will transition from the laboratory to commercialization.

In the mid-term, transcontinental quantum backbone networks are expected to establish preliminary connections, and distributed quantum computing cloud platforms will begin providing commercial services. Quantum networks will deeply integrate with classical cloud networks to form a "hybrid cloud" architecture.

In the long term, the quantum internet will give rise to applications that are currently hard to imagine: when combined with AI, distributed quantum computing can provide AI agents with powerful collaborative reasoning and optimization capabilities to tackle complex environmental modeling and decision-making problems that classical AI struggles to solve; empowering Web3, quantum secure communication will offer a physical-level trust foundation for decentralized identities (DID) and cross-chain interactions, resisting future quantum computer attacks on blockchain signature algorithms and reshaping the security paradigm of digital assets; innovating digital governance based on unconditional secure communication over quantum networks, which provides a "counterweight" for risk management of critical digital infrastructure, potentially leading to new security certification and audit models. Moreover, a healthy and open-source ecosystem is crucial for the innovation of quantum internet software stacks, middleware, and applications.

Constructing a global quantum internet is a grand journey across borders and disciplines. Breakthroughs by Chinese scientists in scalable quantum relays provide a solid starting point for this journey. However, from the breakthrough of "points" to the maturity of "networks," the global tech community, industry, and policymakers must uphold the spirit of open collaboration to jointly tackle the engineering, standardization, and governance challenges. Only then can humanity harness the power of quantum to build a future digital world that is safer, smarter, and more powerful than today's internet.

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