On May 7, 2025, the Ethereum mainnet officially activated the Pectra upgrade at epoch 364032 (6:05 AM EST), marking the most significant network update since the "Merge" in 2022. According to The Block, this upgrade integrates 11 Ethereum Improvement Proposals (EIPs), focusing on user experience, validator operational efficiency, and Layer 2 scalability, injecting strong momentum into the long-term development of the Ethereum ecosystem. Pectra not only solidifies Ethereum's position as the world's leading smart contract platform but also paves the way for the upcoming Fusaka upgrade, signifying a new chapter in Ethereum's scalability and user-friendliness.

Upgrade Background: Rigorous Refinement from Testnet to Mainnet

The successful deployment of the Pectra upgrade was not achieved overnight; it was the result of months of development and testing. Since Pectra went live on the Mekong testnet on November 7, 2024, the development team has conducted repeated validations on multiple testnets, including Holesky, Sepolia, and Hoodi. Notably, when the Holesky testnet was activated on February 24, 2025, it experienced a chain split due to client configuration issues, but the problem was quickly resolved, ensuring stability for subsequent tests. The successful operation of the Hoodi testnet ultimately cleared the way for the mainnet upgrade. According to Crypto Briefing, after the activation of Pectra on the mainnet, community members continuously monitored the network status to ensure a smooth transition.

The Ethereum official stated that Pectra is an upgrade "born for users," aimed at making Ethereum "more usable and smoother." Unlike the "Merge," which focused on protocol layer optimization, Pectra places greater emphasis on the actual experience of users and validators, making it a "refreshing work" for Ethereum.

Core Improvements: Account Abstraction, Staking Flexibility, and Layer 2 Acceleration

The core highlights of the Pectra upgrade focus on three aspects: account abstraction, optimization of validator operations, and enhancement of Layer 2 scalability, each addressing pain points in the Ethereum ecosystem.

EIP-7702: Account Abstraction Reshapes User Experience

EIP-7702 introduces a new type of transaction (identified as 0x04), allowing externally owned accounts (EOAs) to temporarily possess smart contract functionality within a single transaction. This proposal was drafted by Vitalik Buterin in 22 minutes, replacing the controversial EIP-3074, and is seen as a key step towards account abstraction. Specifically, EIP-7702 supports batch transactions (e.g., approving and exchanging tokens in one go), third-party gas fee sponsorship (allowing others to pay transaction fees), and flexible permission management. Users can pay gas fees without holding ETH and can even use stablecoins like USDC or DAI to complete transactions. This significantly lowers the entry barrier for new users while providing more innovative space for decentralized application (dApp) developers.

However, EIP-7702 also brings new challenges. Slow Mist Technology points out that due to the lack of mature smart contract standards, users may face risks of signature phishing or storage conflicts. Wallet service providers need to quickly adapt to the new transaction type and reduce security risks through open-source checks and permission verification.

EIP-7251: Validator Staking Cap Soars to 2048 ETH

EIP-7251 raises the maximum effective staking balance for validators from 32 ETH to 2048 ETH, completely breaking the previous staking limit of 32 ETH units. This means that stakers can directly reinvest their earnings into their effective balance, significantly improving capital efficiency. For example, a validator holding 33 ETH can now receive full rewards without needing to split into multiple validator nodes. Additionally, this proposal allows large staking service providers to merge multiple validators, reducing the total number of validators in the network (currently around 1.05 million). This not only reduces bandwidth and computational burdens but also optimizes peer-to-peer communication efficiency. According to Block Weekly, although the reduction in the number of validators may raise decentralization concerns, EIP-7251 ensures network security through economic incentives while providing a simpler operational process for institutional stakers.

EIP-7691: Layer 2 Data Throughput Doubles

EIP-7691 increases the target number of blobs per block from 3 to 6, with a maximum from 6 to 9, enhancing data storage capacity by 50%. Blobs, introduced by the Dencun upgrade as a temporary data storage mechanism, significantly reduce transaction costs for Layer 2 (L2). Pectra further lowers L2 fees by increasing blob capacity, enhancing Rollup transaction efficiency. To balance bandwidth pressure, EIP-7623 raises calldata fees, incentivizing L2 to prioritize blob storage. According to Blockchain Simplified, this improvement will significantly enhance Ethereum's scalability and lay the groundwork for the future introduction of Verkle Trees and PeerDAS.

Other Optimizations: Validator Operations and Network Efficiency

Pectra also includes several auxiliary EIPs that further enhance network efficiency. For example, EIP-7002 allows execution layer addresses to trigger withdrawals, reducing reliance on validator trust; EIP-6110 shortens the activation time for validator deposits from 9 hours to 13 minutes, optimizing the staking process. Additionally, EIP-2935 provides access to recent block hashes on-chain, supporting trustless oracle services; EIP-2537 reduces gas costs for cryptographic operations, facilitating smart contract deployment.

Future Outlook: Fusaka Upgrade and Ethereum's North Star

Pectra serves as a bridge to the Fusaka upgrade, expected to launch at the end of 2025, focusing on PeerDAS (Data Availability Sampling) and Verkle Trees technology. PeerDAS significantly improves L1 scalability by reducing node data storage requirements through cryptographic sampling; Verkle Trees optimize state storage, paving the way for stateless clients. Bankless predicts that Fusaka aims to push blob capacity to 48/72, further lowering L2 costs while maintaining decentralization.

Datawallet analyzes that the success of Pectra may catalyze an increase in ETH prices. Historically, the Shapella and Dencun upgrades drove price increases of 45% and 70%, respectively, and the bullish potential of Pectra should not be underestimated. Meanwhile, the Ethereum community has high hopes for Pectra, viewing it as a key node in reclaiming market narratives. Vitalik Buterin emphasizes that Pectra is not just a technical upgrade but the starting point for "Ethereum to find its North Star."

This article represents the author's personal views and does not reflect the position or views of this platform. This article is for informational sharing only and does not constitute any investment advice to anyone.

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